Meritocracy: Sociology and American Dream Essay

Peter Saunders (1990, 1996) has been one of the most vocal critics of the British tradition of social mobility research encompassing studies such as those done by Glass and Goldthorpe. According to Saunders, Britian is a true meritocracy because rewards go naturally to those who are best able to ‘perform’ and achieve. In his view, ability and effort are the key factors in occupational success, not class background. Saunders uses empirical data from the National Child Development Study to show that children who are bright and hard-working will succeed regardless of the social advantages or disadvantages they may experience. In his estimation, Britain may be an unequal society, but it is a fair one. In response to such claims, Richard Breen and John Goldthorpe criticize Saunders on both theoretical and methodological grounds. The authors conclude that individual merit is certainly a contributing factor in dterminng individuals’ class positions, but that ‘class of origin’ remains a powerful influence. According to Breen and Goldthorpe, children from disadvantaged must show more merit that those who are advantaged to acquire similar class positions. Page 303 Sociology 4th edition by Anthony Giddens 2001 Blackwell Publishing ltd Oxford uk Meritiocracy – A system in which social positions are filled on the basis of individual merit and achievement, rather than ascribed criteria such as inherited wealth, sex or social background. Pg 693 Schools and Society – info in blue book If the American Dream of meritocracy is our country’s promise, public education is what ensures that promise to all children. Education more than any institution is the system’s way of making certain that achievement is independently earned, not tied to one’s background. Pg 274 The American Dream does not guarantee that everyone will make it in America but it presumes that despite inequalities in their circumstances each individual will have a fair chance, an equal opportunity and no one will be unfairly advantaged or disadvantaged. Given that we are born into different families with very different backgrounds, the system must provide some way to balance our opportunities. A major role of the institution of education is to do just that it is supposed to level out what is an initially uneven playing field. Pg 274 Education was viewed as the Great Equalizer making the American Dream real, and also as the key to the dream. Education provides at least in theory a clear route to follow : ifi you work hard enough in school, then you can be anything, do anything, rise up to any level you choose. Pg 274 What was considered to be a â€Å"good school†? . Parents said that good schools had updated facilities and equipment, stimulating atmospheres and high-quality educational programs. They said they are safe, had teachers who are dedicated, small class sizes, computers, healthy environments and successful graduates who went on to excel academically and occupationally. Pg 277 Sociology making sense of society 4th ed – Marsh Keating Here we can see a continuation of Durkheim’s psotiivist approach, with its emphasis on description rather than criticism. Its implication that education contributes towards a meritocratic system (in which pupils’ educational achievements are based only on ability and effort† has been severelet challenged. As research has repeatedly highlighted the profound effects of social inequalities on educational outcomes.

The Twilight Saga 3: Eclipse Chapter 5. IMPRINT

â€Å"ARE YOU OKAY, JAKE? CHARLIE SAID YOU WERE HAVING a hard time. . . . Isn't it getting any better?† His warm hand curled around mine. â€Å"‘S not so bad,† he said, but he wouldn't meet my eyes. He walked slowly back to the driftwood bench, staring at the rainbow-colored pebbles, and pulling me along at his side. I sat back down on our tree, but he sat on the wet, rocky ground rather than next to me. I wondered if it was so that he could hide his face more easily. He kept my hand. I started babbling to fillthe silence. â€Å"It's been so long since I was here. I've probably missed a ton of things. How are Sam and Emily? And Embry? Did Quil -?† I broke off mid-sentence, remembering that Jacob's friend Quil had been a sensitive subject. â€Å"Ah, Quil,† Jacob sighed. So then it must have happened – Quil must have joined the pack. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I mumbled. To my surprise, Jacob snorted. â€Å"Don't say that to him.† â€Å"What do you mean?† â€Å"Quil's not looking for pity. Just the opposite – he's jazzed. Totally thrilled.† This made no sense to me. All the other wolves had been so depressed at the idea of their friend sharing their fate. â€Å"Huh?† Jacob tilted his head back to look at me. He smiled and rolled his eyes. â€Å"Quil thinks it's the coolest thing that's ever happened to him. Part of it is finally knowing what's going on. And he's excited to have his friends back – to be part of the ‘in crowd.'† Jacob snorted again. â€Å"Shouldn't be surprised, I guess. It's so Quil.† â€Å"He likes it?† â€Å"Honestly . . . most of them do,† Jacob admitted slowly. â€Å"There are definitely good sides to this – the speed, the freedom, the strength . . . the sense of – of family. . . . Sam and I are the only ones who ever felt really bitter. And Sam got past that a long time ago. So I'm the crybaby now.† Jacob laughed at himself. There were so many things I wanted to know. â€Å"Why are you and Sam different? What happened to Sam anyway? What's his problem?† The questions tumbled out without room to answer them, and Jacob laughed again. â€Å"That's a long story.† â€Å"I told you a long story. Besides, I'm not in any hurry to get back,† I said, and then I grimaced as I thought of the trouble I would be in. He looked up at me swiftly, hearing the double edge in my words. â€Å"Will he be mad at you?† â€Å"Yes,† I admitted. â€Å"He really hates it when I do things he considers . . . risky.† â€Å"Like hanging out with werewolves.† â€Å"Yeah.† Jacob shrugged. â€Å"So don't go back. I'll sleep on the couch.† â€Å"That's a great idea,† I grumbled. â€Å"Because then he would come looking for me.† Jacob stiffened, and then smiled bleakly. â€Å"Would he?† â€Å"If he was afraid I was hurt or something – probably.† â€Å"My idea's sounding better all the time.† â€Å"Please, Jake. That really bugs me.† â€Å"What does?† â€Å"That you two are so ready to kill each other!† I complained. â€Å"It makes me crazy. Why can't you both just be civilized?† â€Å"Is he ready to kill me?† Jacob asked with a grim smile, unconcerned by my anger. â€Å"Not like you seem to be!† I realized I was yelling. â€Å"At least he can be a grown-up about this. He knows that hurting you would hurt me – and so he never would. You don't seem to care about that at all!† â€Å"Yeah, right,† Jacob muttered. â€Å"I'm sure he's quite the pacifist.† â€Å"Ugh!† I ripped my hand out of his and shoved his head away. Then I pulled my knees up to my chest and wrapped my arms tightly around them. I glared out toward the horizon, fuming. Jacob was quiet for a few minutes. Finally, he got up off the ground and sat beside me, putting his arm around my shoulders. I shook it off. â€Å"Sorry,† he said quietly. â€Å"I'll try to behave myself.† I didn't answer. â€Å"Do you still want to hear about Sam?† he offered. I shrugged. â€Å"Like I said, it's a long story. And very . . . strange. There're so many strange things about this new life. I haven't had time to tell you the half of it. And this thing with Sam – well, I don't know if I'll even be able to explain it right.† His words pricked my curiosity in spite of my irritation. â€Å"I'm listening,† I said stiffly. Out of the corner of my eye, I saw the side of his face pull up in a smile. â€Å"Sam had it so much harder than the rest of us. Because he was the first, and he was alone, and he didn't have anyone to tell him what was happening. Sam's grandfather died before he was born, and his father has never been around. There was no one there to recognize the signs. The first time it happened – the first time he phased – he thought he'd gone insane. It took him two weeks to calm down enough to change back. â€Å"This was before you came to Forks, so you wouldn't remember. Sam's mother and Leah Clearwater had the forest rangers searching for him, the police. People thought there had been an accident or something. . . .† â€Å"Leah?† I asked, surprised. Leah was Harry's daughter. Hearing her name sent an automatic surge of pity through me. Harry Clearwater, Charlie's life-long friend, had died of a heart attack this past spring. His voice changed, became heavier. â€Å"Yeah. Leah and Sam were high school sweethearts. They started dating when she was just a freshman. She was frantic when he disappeared.† â€Å"But he and Emily -â€Å" â€Å"I'll get to that – it's part of the story,† he said. He inhaled slowly, and then exhaled in a gust. I supposed it was silly for me to imagine that Sam had never loved anyone before Emily. Most people fall in and out of love many times in their lives. It was just that I'd seen Sam with Emily, and I couldn't imagine him with someone else. The way he looked at her . . . well, it reminded me of a look I'd seen sometimes in Edward's eyes – when he was looking at me. â€Å"Sam came back,† Jacob said, â€Å"but he wouldn't talk to anyone about where he'd been. Rumors flew – that he was up to no good, mostly. And then Sam happened to run in to Quil's grandfather one afternoon when Old Quil Ateara came to visit Mrs. Uley. Sam shook his hand. Old Quil just about had a stroke.† Jacob paused to laugh. â€Å"Why?† Jacob put his hand on my cheek and pulled my face around to look at him – he was leaning toward me, his face was just a few inches away. His palm burned my skin, like he had a fever. â€Å"Oh, right,† I said. It was uncomfortable, having my face so close to his with his hand hot against my skin. â€Å"Sam was running a temperature.† Jacob laughed again. â€Å"Sam's hand felt like he'd left it sitting on a hot stovetop.† He was so close, I could feel his warm breath. I reached up casually, to take his hand away and free my face, but wound my fingers through his so that I wouldn't hurt his feelings. He smiled and leaned back, undeceived by my attempt at nonchalance. â€Å"So Mr. Ateara went straight to the other elders,† Jacob went on. â€Å"They were the only ones left who still knew, who remembered. Mr. Ateara, Billy, and Harry had actually seen their grandfathers make the change. When Old Quil told them, they met with Sam secretly and explained. â€Å"It was easier when he understood – when he wasn't alone anymore. They knew he wouldn't be the only one affected by the Cullens' return† – he pronounced the name with unconscious bitterness – â€Å"but no one else was old enough. So Sam waited for the rest of us to join him. . . .† â€Å"The Cullens had no idea,† I said in a whisper. â€Å"They didn't think that werewolves still existed here. They didn't know that coming here would change you.† â€Å"It doesn't change the fact that it did.† â€Å"Remind me not to get on your bad side.† â€Å"You think I should be as forgiving as you are? We can't all be saints and martyrs.† â€Å"Grow up, Jacob.† â€Å"I wish I could,† he murmured quietly. I stared at him, trying to make sense of his response. â€Å"What?† Jacob chuckled. â€Å"One of those many strange things I mentioned.† â€Å"You . . . can't . . . grow up?† I said blankly. â€Å"You're what? Not . . . aging? Is that a joke?† â€Å"Nope.† He popped his lips on the P. I felt blood flood my face. Tears – tears of rage – filled my eyes. My teeth mashed together with an audible grinding sound. â€Å"Bella? What did I say?† I was on my feet again, my hands balled up into fists, my whole frame shaking. â€Å"You. Are. Not. Aging,† I growled through my teeth. Jacob tugged my arm gently, trying to make me sit. â€Å"None of us are. What's wrong with you?† â€Å"Am I the only one who has to get old? I get older every stinking day!† I nearly shrieked, throwing my hands in the air. Some little part of me recognized that I was throwing a Charlie-esque fit, but that rational part was greatly overshadowed by the irrational part. â€Å"Damn it! What kind of world is this? Where's the justice?† â€Å"Take it easy, Bella.† â€Å"Shut up, Jacob. Just shut up! This is so unfair!† â€Å"Did you seriously just stamp your foot? I thought girls only did that on TV.† I growled unimpressively. â€Å"It's not as bad as you seem to think it is. Sit down and I'll explain.† â€Å"I'll stand.† He rolled his eyes. â€Å"Okay. Whatever you want. But listen, I will get older . . . someday.† â€Å"Explain.† He patted the tree. I glowered for a second, but then sat; my temper had burned out as suddenly as it had flared and I'd calmed down enough to realize that I was making a fool of myself. â€Å"When we get enough control to quit . . . ,† Jacob said. â€Å"When we stop phasing for a solid length of time, we age again. It's not easy.† He shook his head, abruptly doubtful. â€Å"It's gonna take a really long time to learn that kind of restraint, I think. Even Sam's not there yet. ‘Course it doesn't help that there's a huge coven of vampires right down the road. We can't even think about quitting when the tribe needs protectors. But you shouldn't get all bent out of shape about it, anyway, because I'm already older than you, physically at least.† â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"Look at me, Bells. Do I look sixteen?† I glanced up and down his mammoth frame, trying to be unbiased. â€Å"Not exactly, I guess.† â€Å"Not at all. Because we reach full growth inside of a few months when the werewolf gene gets triggered. It's one hell of a growth spurt.† He made a face. â€Å"Physically, I'm probably twenty-five or something. So there's no need for you to freak out about being too old for me for at least another seven years.† Twenty-five or something. The idea messed with my head. But I remembered that growth spurt – I remembered watching him shoot up and fill out right before my eyes. I remembered how he would look different from one day to the next. . . . I shook my head, feeling dizzy. â€Å"So, did you want to hear about Sam, or did you want to scream at me some more for things that are out of my control?† I took a deep breath. â€Å"Sorry. Age is a touchy subject for me. That hit a nerve.† Jacob's eyes tightened, and he looked as if he were trying to decide how to word something. Since I didn't want to talk about the truly touchy stuff – my plans for the future, or treaties that might be broken by said plans, I prompted him. â€Å"So once Sam understood what was going on, once he had Billy and Harry and Mr. Ateara, you said it wasn't so hard anymore. And, like you also said, there are the cool parts. . . .† I hesitated briefly. â€Å"Why does Sam hate them so much? Why does he wish I would hate them?† Jacob sighed. â€Å"This is the really weird part.† â€Å"I'm a pro at weird.† â€Å"Yeah, I know.† He grinned before he continued. â€Å"So, you're right. Sam knew what was going on, and everything was almost okay. In most ways, his life was back to, well, not normal. But better.† Then Jacob's expression tightened, like something painful was coming. â€Å"Sam couldn't tell Leah. We aren't supposed to tell anyone who doesn't have to know. And it wasn't really safe for him to be around her – but he cheated, just like I did with you. Leah was furious that he wouldn't tell her what was going on – where he'd been, where he went at night, why he was always so exhausted – but they were working it out. They were trying. They really loved each other.† â€Å"Did she find out? Is that what happened?† He shook his head. â€Å"No, that wasn't the problem. Her cousin, Emily Young, came down from the Makah reservation to visit her one weekend.† I gasped. â€Å"Emily is Leah's cousin?† â€Å"Second cousins. They're close, though. They were like sisters when they were kids.† â€Å"That's . . . horrible. How could Sam . . . ?† I trailed off, shaking my head. â€Å"Don't judge him just yet. Did anyone ever tell you . . . Have you ever heard of imprinting?† â€Å"Imprinting?† I repeated the unfamiliar word. â€Å"No. What's that mean?† â€Å"It's one of those bizarre things we have to deal with. It doesn't happen to everyone. In fact, it's the rare exception, not the rule. Sam had heard all the stories by then, the stories we all used to think were legends. He'd heard of imprinting, but he never dreamed . . .† â€Å"What is it?† I prodded. Jacob's eyes strayed to the ocean. â€Å"Sam did love Leah. But when he saw Emily, that didn't matter anymore. Sometimes . . . we don't exactly know why . . . we find our mates that way.† His eyes flashed back to me, his face reddening. â€Å"I mean . . . our soul mates.† â€Å"What way? Love at first sight?† I snickered. Jacob wasn't smiling. His dark eyes were critical of my reaction. â€Å"It's a little bit more powerful than that. More absolute.† â€Å"Sorry,† I muttered. â€Å"You're serious, aren't you?† â€Å"Yeah, I am.† â€Å"Love at first sight? But more powerful?† My voice still sounded dubious, and he could hear that. â€Å"It's not easy to explain. It doesn't matter, anyway.† He shrugged indifferently. â€Å"You wanted to know what happened to Sam to make him hate the vampires for changing him, to make him hate himself. And that's what happened. He broke Leah's heart. He went back on every promise he'd ever made her. Every day he has to see the accusation in her eyes, and know that she's right.† He stopped talking abruptly, as if he'd said something he hadn't meant to. â€Å"How did Emily deal with this? If she was so close to Leah . . . ?† Sam and Emily were utterly right together, two puzzle pieces, shaped for each other exactly. Still . . . how had Emily gotten past the fact that he'd belonged to someone else? Her sister, almost. â€Å"She was real angry, in the beginning. But it's hard to resist that level of commitment and adoration.† Jacob sighed. â€Å"And then, Sam could tell her everything. There are no rules that can bind you when you find your other half. You know how she got hurt?† â€Å"Yeah.† The story in Forks was that she was mauled by a bear, but I was in on the secret. Werewolves are unstable, Edward had said. The people near them get hurt. â€Å"Well, weirdly enough, that was sort of how they resolved things. Sam was so horrified, so sickened by himself, so full of hate for what he'd done. . . . He would have thrown himself under a bus if it would have made her feel better. He might have anyway, just to escape what he'd done. He was shattered. . . . Then, somehow, she was the one comforting him, and after that. . . .† Jacob didn't finish his thought, and I sensed the story had gotten too personal to share. â€Å"Poor Emily,† I whispered. â€Å"Poor Sam. Poor Leah. . . .† â€Å"Yeah, Leah got the worst end of the stick,† he agreed. â€Å"She puts on a brave face. She's going to be a bridesmaid.† I gazed away, toward the jagged rocks that rose from the ocean like stubby broken-off fingers on the south rim of the harbor, while I tried to make sense of it all. I could feel his eyes on my face, waiting for me to say something. â€Å"Did it happen to you?† I finally asked, still looking away. â€Å"This love-at-first-sight thing?† â€Å"No,† he answered briskly. â€Å"Sam and Jared are the only ones.† â€Å"Hmm,† I said, trying to sound only politely interested. I was relieved, and I tried to explain my reaction to myself. I decided I was just glad he didn't claim there was some mystical, wolfy connection between the two of us. Our relationship was confusing enough as it was. I didn't need any more of the supernatural than I already had to deal with. He was quiet, too, and the silence felt a little awkward. My intuition told me that I didn't want to hear what he was thinking. â€Å"How did that work out for Jared?† I asked to break the silence. â€Å"No drama there. It was just a girl he'd sat next to in school every day for a year and never looked at twice. And then, after he changed, he saw her again and never looked away. Kim was thrilled. She'd had a huge crush on him. She'd had his last name tacked on to the end of hers all over in her diary.† He laughed mockingly. I frowned. â€Å"Did Jared tell you that? He shouldn't have.† Jacob bit his lip. â€Å"I guess I shouldn't laugh. It was funny, though.† â€Å"Some soul mate.† He sighed. â€Å"Jared didn't tell us anything on purpose. I already told you this part, remember?† â€Å"Oh, yeah. You can hear each other's thoughts, but only when you're wolves, right?† â€Å"Right. Just like your bloodsucker.† He glowered. â€Å"Edward,† I corrected. â€Å"Sure, sure. That's how come I know so much about how Sam felt. It's not like he would have told us all that if he'd had a choice. Actually, that's something we all hate.† The bitterness was abruptly harsh in his voice. â€Å"It's awful. No privacy, no secrets. Everything you're ashamed of, laid out for everyone to see.† He shuddered. â€Å"It sounds horrible,† I whispered. â€Å"It is sometimes helpful when we need to coordinate,† he said grudgingly. â€Å"Once in a blue moon, when some bloodsucker crosses into our territory. Laurent was fun. And if the Cullens hadn't gotten in our way last Saturday . . . ugh!† he groaned. â€Å"We could have had her!† His fists clenched into angry balls. I flinched. As much as I worried about Jasper or Emmett getting hurt, it was nothing like the panic I felt at the idea of Jacob going up against Victoria. Emmett and Jasper were the closest thing to indestructible I could imagine. Jacob was still warm, still comparatively human. Mortal. I thought of Jacob facing Victoria, her brilliant hair blowing around her oddly feline face . . . and shuddered. Jacob looked up at me with a curious expression. â€Å"But isn't it like that for you all the time? Having him in your head?† â€Å"Oh, no. Edward's never in my head. He only wishes.† Jacob's expression became confused. â€Å"He can't hear me,† I explained, my voice a tiny bit smug from old habit. â€Å"I'm the only one like that, for him. We don't know why he can't.† â€Å"Weird,† Jacob said. â€Å"Yeah.† The smugness faded. â€Å"It probably means there's something wrong with my brain,† I admitted. â€Å"I already knew there was something wrong with your brain,† Jacob muttered. â€Å"Thanks.† The sun broke through the clouds suddenly, a surprise I hadn't been expecting, and I had to narrow my eyes against the glare off the water. Everything changed color – the waves turned from gray to blue, the trees from dull olive to brilliant jade, and the rainbow-hued pebbles glittered like jewels. We squinted for a moment, letting our eyes adjust. There were no sounds besides the hollow roar of the waves that echoed from every side of the sheltered harbor, the soft grinding of the stones against each other under the water's movement, and the cry of gulls high overhead. It was very peaceful. Jacob settled closer to me, so that he was leaning against my arm. He was so warm. After a minute of this, I shrugged out of my rain jacket. He made a little sound of contentment in the back of his throat, and rested his cheek on the top of my head. I could feel the sun heat my skin – thought it was not quite as warm as Jacob – and I wondered idly how long it would take me to burn. Absentmindedly, I twisted my right hand to the side, and watched the sunlight glitter subtly off the scar James had left there. â€Å"What are you thinking about?† he murmured. â€Å"The sun.† â€Å"Mmm. It's nice.† â€Å"What are you thinking about?† I asked. He chuckled to himself. â€Å"I was remembering that moronic movie you took me to. And Mike Newton puking all over everything.† I laughed, too, surprised by how time had changed the memory. It used to be one of stress, of confusion. So much had changed that night. . . . And now I could laugh. It was the last night Jacob and I had had before he'd learned the truth about his heritage. The last human memory. An oddly pleasant memory now. â€Å"I miss that,† Jacob said. â€Å"The way it used to be so easy . . . uncomplicated. I'm glad I've got a good memory.† He sighed. He felt the sudden tension in my body as his words triggered a memory of my own. â€Å"What is it?† he asked. â€Å"About that good memory of yours . . .† I pulled away from him so that I could read his face. At the moment, it was confused. â€Å"Do you mind telling me what you were doing Monday morning? You were thinking something that bothered Edward.† Bothered wasn't quite the word for it, but I wanted an answer, so I thought it was best not to start out too severely. Jacob's face brightened with understanding, and he laughed. â€Å"I was just thinking about you. Didn't like that much, did he?† â€Å"Me? What about me?† Jacob laughed, with a harder edge this time. â€Å"I was remembering the way you looked that night Sam found you – I've seen it in his head, and it's like I was there; that memory has always haunted Sam, you know. And then I remembered how you looked the first time you came to my place. I bet you don't even realize what a mess you were then, Bella. It was weeks before you started to look human again. And I remembered how you always used to have your arms wrapped around yourself, trying to hold yourself together. . . .† Jacob winced, and then shook his head. â€Å"It's hard for me to remember how sad you were, and it wasn't my fault. So I figured it would be harder for him. And I thought he ought to get a look at what he'd done.† I smacked his shoulder. It hurt my hand. â€Å"Jacob Black, don't you ever do that again! Promise me you won't.† â€Å"No way. I haven't had that much fun in months.† â€Å"So help me, Jake -â€Å" â€Å"Oh, get a grip, Bella. When am I ever going to see him again? Don't worry about it.† I got to my feet, and he caught my hand as I started to walk away. I tried to tug free. â€Å"I'm leaving, Jacob.† â€Å"No, don't go yet,† he protested, his hand tightening around mine. â€Å"I'm sorry. And . . . okay, I won't do it again. Promise.† I sighed. â€Å"Thanks, Jake.† â€Å"Come on, we'll go back to my house,† he said eagerly. â€Å"Actually, I think I really do need to go. Angela Weber is expecting me, and I know Alice is worried. I don't want to upset her too much.† â€Å"But you just got here!† â€Å"It feels that way,† I agreed. I glared up at the sun, somehow already directly overhead. How had the time passed so quickly? His eyebrows pulled down over his eyes. â€Å"I don't know when I'll see you again,† he said in a hurt voice. â€Å"I'll come back the next time he's away,† I promised impulsively. â€Å"Away?† Jacob rolled his eyes. â€Å"That's a nice way to describe what he's doing. Disgusting parasites.† â€Å"If you can't be nice, I won't come back at all!† I threatened, trying to pull my hand free. He refused to let go. â€Å"Aw, don't be mad,† he said, grinning. â€Å"Knee-jerk reaction.† â€Å"If I'm going to try to come back again, you're going to have to get something straight, okay?† He waited. â€Å"See,† I explained. â€Å"I don't care who's a vampire and who's a werewolf. That's irrelevant. You are Jacob, and he is Edward, and I am Bella. And nothing else matters.† His eyes narrowed slightly. â€Å"But I am a werewolf,† he said unwillingly. â€Å"And he is a vampire,† he added with obvious revulsion. â€Å"And I'm a Virgo!† I shouted, exasperated. He raised his eyebrows, measuring my expression with curious eyes. Finally, he shrugged. â€Å"If you can really see it that way . . .† â€Å"I can. I do.† â€Å"Okay. Just Bella and Jacob. None of those freaky Virgos here.† He smiled at me, the warm, familiar smile that I had missed so much. I felt the answering smile spread across my face. â€Å"I've really missed you, Jake,† I admitted impulsively. â€Å"Me, too,† his smile widened. His eyes were happy and clear, free for once of the angry bitterness. â€Å"More than you know. Will you come back soon?† â€Å"As soon as I can,† I promised.

Psychodynamic Perspective Essay

There are various different approaches in contemporary approaches. An approach is a perspective that involves assumptions about human behaviour, the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions. You may be wonder why there are so many different psychology perspectives and whether one approach is correct and others wrong. Most psychologists would agree that no one perspective is correct, although in the past, in the early days of psychology, the behaviourist would have said their perspective was the only truly scientific one. Each perspective has its strengths and weakness and brings something different to our understanding of human behaviour. For this reason, it is important that psychology does have different perspectives to the understanding and study of human and animal behaviour. There are few clear explanations of common misbehaviour among secondary school students aged 16-19 years of age in terms of psychological theories. These explanations from the earlier psychologists able to make us understand more about gang violence that is increasing in amount nowadays. 3.0 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE 3.1 DEFINITION Psychodynamic referred to as an approach to psychology that emphasises systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. It is also used by some to refer specifically to the psychoanalytical approach developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers, although such use becomes confusing, because some of those followers, in particular, John Bowlby opposed the founding principles of Freud’s theory, forming opposing factions. Bowlby’s attachment theory, still described as ‘psychodynamic’ in approach, is widely considered to be the basis of most current research and to have put the field formerly known as psychoanalysis on a more scientifically based,  experimentally testable, footing. The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to both his theories and those of his followers. Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy. Sigmund Freud developed a collection of theories which have formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. His theories are clinically derived for example based on what his patients told him during therapy. The psychodynamic therapist would usually be treating the patient for depression or anxiety related disorders. Psychodynamic psychology ignores the trappings of science and instead focuses on trying to get ‘inside the head’ of individuals in order to make sense of their relationships, experiences and how they see the world. The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious and between the different structures of the personality. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g. Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950). 3.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE ASSUMPTIONS Behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives. Behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. All behaviour has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue. Therefore all behaviour is determined. Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (the ego). Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood (during psychosexual development). The unconscious is one of the most powerful effects on behaviour and emotion No behaviour is without cause and is therefore determined. Childhood experiences greatly affect emotions and behaviour as adults. The  id, ego and super-ego make up personality  The drives behind behaviour are a) The lift instinct and sex drive b) Death instinct and aggressive drive. Various conflicts throughout childhood development shape overall personality. The psychodynamic perspective asserts that in childhood certain incidents may occur that produce behaviours in adulthood. As children, defence mechanisms are utilized, then as adults behaviours manifest as a result. Examples of defence mechanisms that may be used include: Repression Denial Reaction formation Sublimation Projection Displacement Regression Fantasy Some examples of behaviours and their explanations using psychodynamic perspective include: Obsessive hand washing could be linked to a trauma in childhood that now causes this behaviour Nail-biting may be caused by an anxiety inducing childhood event A childhood event that caused fear in an open space may trigger agoraphobia in an adult Hoarding behaviours could be a result of childhood trauma Number aversion can be an obsessive behaviour perhaps initiated by an incident in childhood development Rituals of nervousness such as completing a task a certain number of times (such as opening and closing a cabinet) could be linked to a childhood situation Skin picking is a compulsion that would be linked to a developmental trauma Another compulsive behaviour is hair plucking Compulsively counting footsteps could be linked to an incident in childhood.  Any irrational behaviours can be blamed on childhood instances of trauma or development Neurotic behaviours can be linked to childhood development issues or interruptions Sexual compulsions or related sexual behavioural issues are linked at the sexual development stage using the psychodynamic perspective. 3.3 HISTORY OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Anna O a patient of Dr. Joseph Breuer, who is Freud’s mentor and friend, from 1800 to 1882 suffered from hysteria. In 1895 Breuer and his assistant, Sigmund Freud, wrote a book, Studies on Hysteria. In it they explained their theory that says every hysteria is the result of a traumatic experience, one that cannot be integrated into the person’s understanding of the world. The publication establishes Freud as â€Å"the father of psychoanalysis.† By 1896, Freud had found the key to his own system, naming it psychoanalysis. In it he had replaced hypnosis with â€Å"free association.† In 1900, Freud published his first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams, which established the importance of psychoanalytical movement. In 1902, Freud founded the Psychological Wednesday Society, later transformed into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called â€Å"Committee†. Freud and his colleagues came to Massachusetts in 1909 to lecture on their new methods of understanding mental illness. Those in attendance included some of the country’s most important intellectual figures, such as William James, Franz Boas, and Adolf Meyer. In the years following the visit to the United States, the International Psychoanalytic Association was founded. Freud designated Carl Jung as his successor to lead the Association, and chapters were created in major cities in Europe and elsewhere. Regular meetings or congresses were held to discuss the theory, therapy, and cultural applications of the new discipline. Jung’s study on schizophrenia, The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, led him into collaboration with Sigmund Freud. Jung’s close collaboration with Freud lasted until 1913. Jung had become increasingly critical of Freud’s exclusively sexual definition of libido and incest. The publication of Jung’s Wandlungen und Symbole der  Libido, known in English as The Psychology of the Unconscious, ted to a final break. Following his emergence from this period of crisis, Jung developed his own theories systematically under the name of Analytical Psychology. Jung’s concepts of the collective unconscious led him to explore religion in the East and West, myths, alchemy and later flying saucers. Anna Freud, Freud’s daughter, became a major force in British psychology, specializing in the application of psychoanalysis to children. Among her best known work is The Ego and the Mechanism of Defence (1936). 3.4 PSYCHODYNAMIC STRENGTH AND LIMITATIONS STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS Made the case study method popular in psychology Defence mechanisms Free association Projective Tests (TAT, Rorschach) Highlighted the importance of childhood Case studies are subjective and cannot generalize results Unscientific (lacks empirical support) Too deterministic (little free-will) Biased sample Ignores meditational processes (e.g. thinking, memory) Rejects free will Difficult to prove wrong 3.5 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS The greatest criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour. Many of the concepts central to Freud’s theories are subjective and as much impossible to scientifically test. For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind or the tripartite personality? In this respect, the psychodynamic perspective is difficult to prove wrong as the theories cannot be empirically investigated. Furthermore, most of the evidence for psychodynamic theories is taken from Freud’s case studies, e.g. Little Hans, Anna O. The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail and with reference to Freud the individuals in question are most often middle aged women from Vienna for instance his patients. This makes generalizations to the wider population difficult. The humanistic approach makes the criticism that the psychodynamic perspective is too deterministic that it is leaving little room for the idea of personal agency. 3.6 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF GANG VIOLENCE The psychodynamic theory places its emphasis on the notion that one of the main causes of gang violence is children’s abnormal personalities that were created and developed in earlier life. Since then these â€Å"unconscious mental processes† have been controlling the adolescents’ criminal behaviour. The Id is the drive for immediate gratification and can explain gang violence acts. The ego is the realization of real life and helps control the Id. Superego develops through interactions with parents and other responsible adults and develops the conscience of moral rules. This psychodynamic approach states that traumatic experiences during early childhood can prevent the ego and superego from developing properly, therefore leaving the Id with greater power (Champion, 2004). According to psychodynamic theory, whose basis is the pioneering work of the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, law violations are a product of an abnormal personality structure formed early in life and which thereafter controls human behaviour choices. Unconscious motivations for behaviour come from the Id’s action in response to two primal needs-sex and aggression. Human behaviour is often marked by symbolic actions that reflect hidden feelings about these needs. For example, stealing a car may reflect a person’s unconscious need for shelter and mobility to escape from hostile enemies or perhaps an urge to enter a closed, dark, womblike structure that reflects the earliest memories (sex). All three segments of the personality operate simultaneously. The Id dictates needs and desires, the superego counteracts the Id by fostering the feelings of morality and righteousness and the ego evaluates the reality of a position between these two extremes. If these two components are properly balanced, the individual can lead a normal life. If one aspect of the personality becomes dominant at the expense of the others, the individual exhibits abnormal personality traits. A number of psychologists and psychiatrists expanded upon Freud’s original model to explain the onset of gang violence among adolescents. Erik Erikson speculated that many adolescents experience a life crisis in which they feel emotional, impulsive and uncertain of their role and purpose. He coined the phrase identity crisis to denote this period of inner turmoil and confusion. Erikson’s approach might characterize the behaviour of youthful drug abusers as an expansion of confusion over their place in society, their inability to direct behaviour towards useful outlets and perhaps their dependency on others to offer them solutions to their problems. Psychoanalyst, August Aichorn, found in his classic work that social stress alone could not produce such an emotional state. He identify latent delinquencies which means youths whose troubled family leads them to seek immediate gratification without consideration of right and wrong or the feelings of others. In its most extreme form, gang violence may be viewed as a form of psychosis that prevents delinquent youths from appreciating the feelings of their victims or controlling their own impulsive needs for gratification. Psychodynamic theory holds that youth involvement in gang violence is a result of unresolved mental anguish and internal conflict. Some children, especially those who have been abused or mistreated, might experience unconscious feelings associated with resentment, fear and hatred. If this conflict cannot be settled, the children may regress to a state in which they become Id dominated. This regression may be considered responsible for a great number of mental diseases, from neuroses to psychoses, and in many cases it may be related to criminal behaviour. Adolescents in gangs are Id-dominated people who suffer from the inability to control impulsive drives. Just because they suffered unhappy experiences in childhood or had families who could not  provide proper love and care, causing them to suffer from weak or damaged egos that make them unable to cope with conventional society. Adolescent antisocial behaviour is a consequence of feeling unable to cope with feelings of oppression. Involvement in gang violence actually allows youths to strive by producing positive psychic results, helping them to feel free and independent, giving them possibility of excitement and the chance to use their skills and imagination; providing the promise of positive gain, allowing them to blame others for their predicament (for example, the police) and giving them a chance to rationalize their own sense of failure. The psychodynamic approach places a heavy emphasis on the family’s role. Gangs frequently come from families in which parents unable to provide the controls that allow children to develop the personal tools they need to cope with the world. If neglectful parents fail to develop a child’s superego adequately, the child’s Id may become the predominant personality force, the absence of a strong superego results in an inability to distinguish clearly between right and wrong. In fact, some psychodynamic view gangs as motivated by an unconscious urge to be punished. These children feel unloved, assume the reason must be their own inadequacy, hence they deserve punishment. Later, the youth may demand immediate gratification, lack of compassion and sensitivity for the needs of others, disassociate feelings, act aggressively and impulsively and demonstrate other psychotic symptoms. According to the psychodynamic approach, gang violence is a function of unconscious mental instability and turmoil. People who have lost control and are dominated by their Id are known as psychotics, thus causing their behaviour be marked by hallucinations and inappropriate responses. Megargee’s ‘overcontrolled’ violent offender Megargee (1966) documented a series of cases of gang violence carried out by people who were regarded as passive and harmless. For instance, an 11 year-old boy who stabbed his brother 34 times with a steak knife was described as polite and softly spoken with no history of aggression. Megargee argued that such cases represent a distinct sub-group of violent offender criminological psychology. Psychodynamic theories of offending Aidan Sammons whose shared characteristic is an apparent inability to express their anger in normal ways and who eventually ‘explode’ and release all their anger and aggression at once, often in response to a seemingly trivial provocation. Freudian formulations like Megargee’s are unfashionable nowadays and more research attention is given to the majority of violent offenders, whose problem is generally a lack of inhibition of their anger, rather than too much inhibition. Nonetheless, there is evidence that a subset of violent offenders follow the pattern described by Megargee. For example, Blackburn (1971) found that people convicted of extremely violent assaults tended to have fewer previous convictions and scored lower on measures of hostility than those convicted of moderately violent assaults. However, the existence of such a group does not in itself show that Megargee was correct about the underlying mechanisms responsible.

Titration Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Titration - Lab Report Example In the case of the titration of NaOH with dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4 this point is marked by the sudden and stable change in the color of the base-indicator mixture following titration with the acid. This experiment will determine the volume of the acid used when the end point is reached after 0.1M sodium hydroxide is titrated with hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid of unknown molarities using phenolphthalein indicator. While wearing safety glasses and a lab coat 100 cm3 of NaOH (aq) was collected in a large beaker. A burette was clamped firmly and filled with dilute HCl  ­(aq) until the bottom of the meniscus of the acid was on the zero line. 25.00 cm3 of the NaOH solution was pipetted (with caution) into a conical flask and then four drops of phenolphthalein indicator added. This flask was then placed on a white tile that was placed directly underneath the burette’s tap. Acid from the burette was added rapidly into the conical flask until the red colour disappeared. The volume of the acid added was noted down as the rough value. The burette was then filled again with dilute HCl (aq) to the zero mark and another 25.00 cm3 of NaOH (aq) cautiously pipetted into a second conical flask and four drops of phenolphthalein added. The acid was then added rapidly until within 2 cm3 of the reading noted earlier, at which point it was added slowly until the colour of the solution in the conical flask just disappeared. The volume of acid used was recorded. These last two steps of the experiment were repeated two more times, after which the entire experiment was repeated again, using dilute H2SO4 (aq) instead of dilute HCl (aq). In this experiment, phenolphthalein was used as the indicator. During the titration, the acid was allowed to mix with the base. In doing so, the pH values changed from basic (>7) towards 7. At the end point, the pH was neutral as this is the point when there are equal amounts of base and acid in the mixture. The chemical equations

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TARGET MARKET & COMPETITIVE ANALYSIS - Essay Example A diverse set of customers visit the Geary St. Part of the reason is that there are many upscale shops like Louis Vuitton, Dior, Chanel, Michael Kor and Apple Store as well as many outlets like Forever 21, H&M, Zara, Gap, and Guess that keep medium ranged apparel and stocks. As a result of this people with high incomes, middle income groups as well as a lot of students visit this area. Since these people belong to different economic and psychographic groups, they want different food items and at different price points. The Cheesecake Factory has a numerous menu options including burgers, sandwiches, pastas, salads, side dishes, cheesecakes, specialty desserts, ice creams and creamy milkshakes. The restaurant also offers hot drinks, iced and frozen drinks and specialty drinks. Blended cocktails, bottled bears, champagne and sparkling wine are also served at the restaurant. This vast array of menu options has the potency to satiate the taste buds of a diverse guest base. With close to 200 items on its menu ranging from $11 to $30, the restaurant chain can cater to all shoppers across all income groups. The second value that shoppers seek is convenience. People who have been on a shopping spree are likely to seek convenient seating arrangement. Couples and families will like to spend quality time together. On the other hand, there would be some shoppers who are running against time. They want to have a quick snack and move on. The quick service and take-out facility available at The Cheesecake Factory will appeal to such customers. The choice of food may also vary depending on what time shoppers visit The Cheesecake Factory. The restaurant is open from 11: 00 am to 11: 00 pm from Monday through Thursday. It is also open from 10: 00 am to 11: 00 pm on Sunday. Thus shoppers can visit the restaurant anytime during these hours. They have the option of eating lunch or

The Powers and Responsibilities of the Greater London Authority Essay

The Powers and Responsibilities of the Greater London Authority - Essay Example Hence, the power set-up for GLA was kept restricted. However, after a span of six years, the GLA strived for success through the incorporation of a model of ‘strong Mayor’. In the present scenario, the GLA is defined as that form of the government in which powers and responsibilities are bestowed through the Mayor and Assembly with the aim of addressing the challenges that are being faced by London. The various areas in which the GLA is held responsible are inclusive of transportation, policing, fire and salvage, growth and development and lastly strategic planning. The responsibilities of the GLA are not accounted for direct service provision but it operates with the help of functional bodies embedded under the scope of the GLA (London First, 2011). For dealing with transportation, the functional body Transport for London is held responsible. This body is bestowed with the responsibility of managing the system of transportation within the city of London. ... Â  Along with these historical powers and responsibilities of the GLA, on November 30th, 2005, additional powers were proposed to be incorporated under the GLA. The review for the GLA powers and responsibilities gave rise to the inclusion of additional powers and responsibilities which included managing waste, housing, planning and learning along with skills (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: London, 2005). 2. Literature Review Summarizing the Environmental Policies of the Mayor Johnson (2010) provided a positive feedback towards the decision that Mr. Boris Johnson (the Mayor) considered regarding the environmental issues but at the same time had also criticized the process through which the Mayor aimed to achieve his environmental goals. As per the policies of the Mayor, the target is to achieve 60% reduction in the city’s emission of CO2 by the year 2025. The Mayor stated estimation that 60 billion pounds would be required to be invested for attaining the targeted reduct ion in CO2 emission. However, the Mayor also intimated that he expects spending from the government in this regards up to an amount of 800 million pounds for introducing vehicles emitting low carbon by the year 2018. As regards to the expectations of the Mayor, the author estimated that the government would have to spend 193 million pounds by the year 2015 (Johnson, 2010). The policy of the Mayor was appreciated by the author on the grounds that it would generate contributions for the city in the form of job enhancement, security in terms of energy supply, reduction of fuel inefficiency and also improvement of the public’s health.

How to do research project on management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

How to do research project on management - Essay Example There are numerous means of conducting qualitative research, methods such as focus groups, surveys as well as interviews. To facilitate the process of uncovering insightful findings, the author opts for a multi-method approach for a research strategy allowing for several methods of collecting the data. For the purpose of the study, surveys were used in conjunction with telephone interviews. To triangulate these primary data the author has also accessed the websites of the organizations for their core values, mission statements, messages and other secondary data as internal company records including organizational structures, annual reports etc. Such data can be â€Å"qualitatively analyzed† provided the â€Å"relevance to the study topic† is present. In designing surveys, it is important to establish the purpose of the survey and consider the key variables, which are being identified and how the data gathered will be analyzed. Having considered these aspects, 4 semi-str uctured descriptive questionnaires focusing on organizational culture, key HRM practices and two dimensions of work-related values were drawn up to facilitate the study. The questions were formed by employing relevance trees tactics keeping the focus on the key hypothesis being explored. The aim was to give proper direction to the research. The questionnaires were piloted with the aid of colleagues, so that the instruments clarity as well as effectiveness was assessed and adjustments were made to certain wording and removing technical jargon.