How to do research project on management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

How to do research project on management - Essay Example There are numerous means of conducting qualitative research, methods such as focus groups, surveys as well as interviews. To facilitate the process of uncovering insightful findings, the author opts for a multi-method approach for a research strategy allowing for several methods of collecting the data. For the purpose of the study, surveys were used in conjunction with telephone interviews. To triangulate these primary data the author has also accessed the websites of the organizations for their core values, mission statements, messages and other secondary data as internal company records including organizational structures, annual reports etc. Such data can be â€Å"qualitatively analyzed† provided the â€Å"relevance to the study topic† is present. In designing surveys, it is important to establish the purpose of the survey and consider the key variables, which are being identified and how the data gathered will be analyzed. Having considered these aspects, 4 semi-str uctured descriptive questionnaires focusing on organizational culture, key HRM practices and two dimensions of work-related values were drawn up to facilitate the study. The questions were formed by employing relevance trees tactics keeping the focus on the key hypothesis being explored. The aim was to give proper direction to the research. The questionnaires were piloted with the aid of colleagues, so that the instruments clarity as well as effectiveness was assessed and adjustments were made to certain wording and removing technical jargon.

William Shakespeare and his play Richard II Essay

William Shakespeare and his play Richard II - Essay Example Accordingly, principal excerpts from this historical play are: firstly, King Richard II's: 'Nay, if I turn mine eyes upon myself, I find myself a traitor with the rest; For I have given here my soul's consent To undeck the pompous body of a king; Made glory base and sovereignty a slave, Proud majesty a subject, state a peasant' (Bate, 2010); secondly, also Richard's: 'Exton, thy fierce hand Hath with the king's blood stain'd the king's own land' (Bate, 2010); thirdly, Exton's: 'As full of valour as of royal blood †¦ This dead king to the living king I'll bear Take hence the rest, and give them burial here' (Bate, 2010); then, Henry Bolingbroke's: 'Exton, I thank thee not; for thou hast wrought A deed of slander with thy fatal hand Upon my head and all this famous land' (Bate, 2010); finally, also Bolingbroke's: 'Though I did wish him dead, I hate the murderer, love him murdered. †¦ Lords, I protest, my soul is full off woe, That blood should sprinkle me to make me grow: Com e, mourn with me for that I do lament, And put on sullen black incontinent: I'll make a vayage to the Holy Land, To wish this blood off from my guilty hand' (Bate, 2010). Further on, all these excerpts' meaning will be revealed according to the question and the overall meaning of the play. To understand these excerpts properly, we need to pick up few relevant actions from the synopsis. Specifically, Henry Bolingbroke was a Richard's cousin, disputing with Thomas Mowbray in the beginning of the play. Afterwards, they both were banished by the king; when John de Gaunt, Boligbroke's father, died, Richard injustly seized de Gaunt's land. Nevertheless, Bolingbroke returned secretly, while king was administering the war with Ireland. In fact, he and his supporters won the civil war against Richard (scenes before Wales' coast and in the Flint castle), and deprived king from his land, throne of England, and even his own life (at Pomfret's scene). According to this dramaturgy, we would answe r given question from 'The King's Two Bodies' perspective, concerning not only his natural and politic / spiritual body, but also a rising of the Machivellian king, Henry Bolingbroke. Then, we will discuss two different blocks within given question: whether Bolingbroke and his supporters were justified in taking the throne from King Richard; what was lost and what was gained concerning Richard's actions as king and Boligbroke's actions once he seized power. Answering these blocks we will be pedominantly focused on excerpts stated above. Primarily, Henry Bolingbroke and his supporters, Northumberland and Percy, were not fully justified in taking the throne from Richard, because Richard remained as legal king even being impisoned after revolution. Bolingbroke was Richard's cousin, and very magnificent and successful leader of nobles' party, but still the previous king became an opportunity for the loyalists to restore their power. Moreover, in the medieval ages political situation wit h two kings --- old and new --- was often instable, due to a fact that if almighty God only himself ruled the universe, this meant that king by only himself must have been governed the English land (Richard's 'thy fierce hand Hath with the king's blood stain'd the king's own land' (Bate, 2010)), i.e. according to the medieval assumptions on the nature of royal power in the society, king had two bodies:

Food waste Essay Example for Free

Food waste Essay Fresh vegetables, ready-to-cook meals, and cheap meat is what a modern consumer’s supposed grocery list comprises of! Dump it all into your fridge full of deals, discount offers and feel happy. This is how the shop keeper gets a loyal customer. At the end o the story, it’s the food industry’s creed that the customer is always right†¦.. If food became it s own pungent country, it would be the world’s third biggest contributor to climatic changes. According to United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, one-third of the world’s total food is wasted around the world, literally to fork direct from the farm. In West, most of the food waste occurs because usually the leftover ingredients are tossed out. The major reason for food wastage is that the harvest of a farmer does not meet the retailer’s specific demand. Considering tomatoes, if too small or even too big to be sold to retailer will be left to rot in fields. Whilst, in developing countries the scenario is a little different because the food rots between fields and markets due to shortage of storage capacity. Awareness campaigns regarding food waste have already begun in the Western part of the world. Organizations are educating people about the waste of food at household level and how can it be eliminated or reduced to an extent. This is just the bit of the whole chunk. Even supermarkets are playing their part by producing recipes to use leftover food and pamphlets to store your food in the best possible manner. Likewise, many grocery stores have initiated redistribution of unsold stocks and excess to charitable organizations. Looking at food waste in local context, Pakistan is also the culprit for this wastage in spite of the fact that underfeeding and food shortage are areas of serious concern. Although we produce adequate food for our nation but still the wastage level is at its peak. This is because of careless attitude of our state and our society’s love for excess food. When we talk about consumption of food, negligence by society also needs to be tackled. At social events as well as weddings, it is quite usual for people to pile up a mountain of food on their plates and eat just a portion of it as if this is the last time they are eating food. Much is needed to done to store perishable items such as fruits and vegetables. State needs to look into this matter with utmost care and also to preserve grains by creating extra facility for storage purpose. On collective basis, way of thinking needs to be changed. It is not only unethical but also an act of being socially irresponsible to waste food when millions around the world sleep empty stomach. According to Tim Lang, professor at City University London, food waste is a symptom, not a problem. So to eradicate these symptom governments, non-governmental organizations like UN can discourage wasteful exercises by producers of the food, farmers, consumers and grocery stores. Food spoiling and wasting is causing physical destruction to mother earth. So let’s join hands to exterminate wastage of food for those who starve and are under privileged.

John Locke Argue That Private Property Philosophy Essay

John Locke Argue That Private Property Philosophy Essay Almost all modern notions of private property and its legislation is based on arguments advocated by John Locke . His theory has been applied to the property rights of physical and intellectual objects -even extending to international law- however, various interpretations of his opinions exist (Nozick, 1974, pp. 167-182; Tuckness, 2011; Waldron, 2002, pp. 152-184; Widerquist, 2010, pp. 3-4).  [1]  These analyses range from MacPhersons class-based capitalism to Waldrons limited ownership rights and also see James Tully argue that Locke promoted limits of civil society (Discourse on Property, 1980, pp. 131-150; Widerquist, 2010, pp. 3-5). This paper aims to give an account of John Lockes argument for property rights as described in his book The Two Treatises of Civil Government and then critically analyse it to establish its political philosophy and likely consequences. In conclusion it will argue that as various -and often incompatible and contradictory- interpretations of his theory have been suggested and incorporated in different political ideologies, it is impossible to ascribe a certain set of political consequences to the right to private property as advocated by Locke.  [2]   First assumptions First, let us follow Locke in his argument that private property is a natural human right. He begins by assuming that it is a right intended in nature and commanded by God that mankind should preserve itself (Locke, 1689, 25). He makes a further assumption that God has given the world to men in common to use and to flourish (Locke, 1689, 26). These two assumptions along with a statement that man owns his person and labour, make the basis of his arguments for the right to private property (Locke, 1689, 27). Definitions Limits/provisos No-waste Various critiques of Lockes Treatises have identified sets of limits to what he advocates: (I) there should be no waste or destruction, (II) and that one should leave plenty, enough, and as good [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] in common for others (Locke, 1689, 27; MacPherson, 1962, pp. 210-212; Widerquist, 2010, pp. 7-11). Widerquist (2010, p. 8) also mentions a third proviso of charity among the scholarly interpretations of Lockean appropriation, but Locke (1689, 40-45) does not mention it directly in chapter five of his second book. In short, the first proviso -no-waste- asserts that property is to be used and enjoyed within bounds of reason, where nothing is destroyed or spoilt (Locke, 1689, 31; Widerquist, 2010, pp. 7-8). Locke (1689, 32,38,46) also argues that any appropriator can take as much as they can use, consume, and need but not anything more. Second proviso, enough and as good Justification Giving back/taking nothing Locke (1689, 27-37) even argues that an appropriator, by the act of using and benefitting from their property and creating plenty produce, is giving back to the common property. He goes as far as justifying enclosing land by demonstrating that the enough-and-as-good proviso ensures that the appropriator does as good as take nothing at all (Locke, 1689, 33; Widerquist, 2010, p. 9). Happiness/Plenty produced/value of labour In section 37 (Locke, 1689) he claims that owning and cultivating land increases human happiness. He makes a comparison between the quality of life that Native Americans had and people in Britain; redressing this argument in defence of capitalism (Locke, 1689, 37,41,43,46). Future Locke begins his theory of property in the state of nature. Money/invalidation of provisos Civil society/government When the Civil society is established these property rights can either become subject to social agreement or be carried over in their entirety and create a class-based social interaction where some have property and others dont (Widerquist, 2010, p. 20). Moreover, his provisos maybe be changed or used to justify government intervention (Widerquist, 2010, p. 20). Critique Contextual, Christianity Like any other theory, Lockes theory of property is not without problems. The first and most important of them is the reasons behind its creation. Locke was trying to reconcile Christianity with capitalism, two very different philosophies. Reconciling Christianity and capitalism Capitalism increases poverty, artificial wants, waste, and private property Locke argues, Utilitarianism is most important and most Christian Acknowledges and supports inequality and class system Argues common good is more important that common property Religious v secular Lockes theory of property is based on 17th century requirements of reconciling the church with the new ideas of capitalism. The first critiques that comes to mind is whether a reasonable argument for the religious society of almost 400 years ago still holds for more-or-less secular society of 21st century. It certainly makes a difference that the extent of the powers of the religious authority is far reduced since. Some scholars argue that more secular ideas like socialism or justice as fairness fit better with the requirements of our age. Unfairness Whether an argument based on religion is still valid or not, it is safe to assume that humankind has always been concerned with fairness. Locke (1689, 46-51) sees this fairness in the initial acquisition, when there was more than enough in nature for all to appropriate as they could. Locke supports inheritance of rights as fair but in the inherent inequality that ensues finds many on the wrong side of his argument. There are many incompatible definitions of fairness, but in considering the merits of Lockes theory, some scholars find the nullification of limits à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Conclusion

The Sniper Essay -- English Literature Essays

The Sniper "The Sniper" places a strong emphasis on the evils of war, and yet paints a vivid image of mankind's qualities and their society. Employing the technique of describing one particular sniper to symbolise a general subject, readers are able to gain a deep insight into the evils of war. In this story, the assembly of setting, contrasting characters and themes of fanaticism and division of loyalties are vital to conveying the horror of war. On the other hand, "The Sniper" also discusses the power of war, depicting it as the decider of life and death for men. Its force is further emphasised when neighbours are turned into enemies under war's influence. The setting of the story, Dublin, has been written in such a way that only highly negative images are conveyed to portray evil. From the beginning to the end, Dublin is seen as an insecure, fearful, and vulnerable town abundant with weapons of war and associated horror.  ¡Ã‚ §Dublin lay enveloped in darkness ¡Ã‚ ¨ instantly transmits a sense of mystery, weariness and fear. This negative image is strengthened by  ¡Ã‚ §Around the beleaguered Four Courts the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city machine guns and rifles broke the silence of the night, spasmodically like dogs barking on lone farm. ¡Ã‚ ¨ Dublin can be almost compared to a person, who has struggled under stress and is now defeated. The city is empty, apart from the roar of  ¡Ã‚ §machine guns and rifles ¡Ã‚ ¨ which have converted the city not a place of misery and ba... The Sniper Essay -- English Literature Essays The Sniper "The Sniper" places a strong emphasis on the evils of war, and yet paints a vivid image of mankind's qualities and their society. Employing the technique of describing one particular sniper to symbolise a general subject, readers are able to gain a deep insight into the evils of war. In this story, the assembly of setting, contrasting characters and themes of fanaticism and division of loyalties are vital to conveying the horror of war. On the other hand, "The Sniper" also discusses the power of war, depicting it as the decider of life and death for men. Its force is further emphasised when neighbours are turned into enemies under war's influence. The setting of the story, Dublin, has been written in such a way that only highly negative images are conveyed to portray evil. From the beginning to the end, Dublin is seen as an insecure, fearful, and vulnerable town abundant with weapons of war and associated horror.  ¡Ã‚ §Dublin lay enveloped in darkness ¡Ã‚ ¨ instantly transmits a sense of mystery, weariness and fear. This negative image is strengthened by  ¡Ã‚ §Around the beleaguered Four Courts the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city machine guns and rifles broke the silence of the night, spasmodically like dogs barking on lone farm. ¡Ã‚ ¨ Dublin can be almost compared to a person, who has struggled under stress and is now defeated. The city is empty, apart from the roar of  ¡Ã‚ §machine guns and rifles ¡Ã‚ ¨ which have converted the city not a place of misery and ba...

Essay --

Popular representations of war encompass how different generations and societies have seen, witnessed and explained or justified wars through the use of language, literature, visual arts and later, films. Contemporary war refers to the new concepts, weaponry, and technologies that have been used at the beginning of WWII to the present time period. Over the years that have passed, the methods and concepts have assumed newer complex forms, mainly due to widespread use of information and technology and also modern armies that have constantly upgraded to preserve their battle worthiness. Furthermore, contemporary war has sought the greater inclusion of civilians and civilian infrastructure as targets in destroying a nations capability of waging war. As an apt corollary of popular representations of war, Homer’s epic poem, ‘The Iliad’, tries to show its audience the suffering and loss caused by war, in his time period. In addition, some of the main themes in popular re presentations of war are, for example, the theme of wrath and revenge, motives that have been the start of many wars; and the theme of military prowess. However, ‘The Iliad’ can also be seen as a misleading corollary that disconnects from popular representations of war through the centuries, due to the fact that it excludes the theme of battle or combat suffering, since in ‘The Iliad’, soldiers die instantly, whereas the author does not expose to the readers the suffering accompanying so many wounded soldiers, who die a slow and un-hero like death. Using adequate quotes from ‘The Iliad’, Lokesson, Shay, and other outside sources, we will try to understand how ‘The Iliad’ is an apt and a misleading corollary to understand popular representations of war. The Greek ancient ... ...wn us a less tidy affair, involving many conflicting needs and many more possibilities of dissent. Overall, one thing remains clear, whether in The Iliad or in other depictions of war through the times, it is the young that are sent to the battlefield, either to gain glory or to die, thus, as Herbert Hoover once said: â€Å"Old men declare war. But it is the youth that must fight and die.† The Iliad is no different, as it clearly shows us that war is waged by those that can physically fight it, that show the bravery and masculine love for the affair and that have something to gain (or lose) from it. The Iliad thus, becomes perhaps, one of the greatest depictions of how war is fought and why it is fought, and the pathos it brings to all it touches. If we still read it 2,500 years or so, after it was written, it must conjure powerful feelings with which we still identify. Essay -- Popular representations of war encompass how different generations and societies have seen, witnessed and explained or justified wars through the use of language, literature, visual arts and later, films. Contemporary war refers to the new concepts, weaponry, and technologies that have been used at the beginning of WWII to the present time period. Over the years that have passed, the methods and concepts have assumed newer complex forms, mainly due to widespread use of information and technology and also modern armies that have constantly upgraded to preserve their battle worthiness. Furthermore, contemporary war has sought the greater inclusion of civilians and civilian infrastructure as targets in destroying a nations capability of waging war. As an apt corollary of popular representations of war, Homer’s epic poem, ‘The Iliad’, tries to show its audience the suffering and loss caused by war, in his time period. In addition, some of the main themes in popular re presentations of war are, for example, the theme of wrath and revenge, motives that have been the start of many wars; and the theme of military prowess. However, ‘The Iliad’ can also be seen as a misleading corollary that disconnects from popular representations of war through the centuries, due to the fact that it excludes the theme of battle or combat suffering, since in ‘The Iliad’, soldiers die instantly, whereas the author does not expose to the readers the suffering accompanying so many wounded soldiers, who die a slow and un-hero like death. Using adequate quotes from ‘The Iliad’, Lokesson, Shay, and other outside sources, we will try to understand how ‘The Iliad’ is an apt and a misleading corollary to understand popular representations of war. The Greek ancient ... ...wn us a less tidy affair, involving many conflicting needs and many more possibilities of dissent. Overall, one thing remains clear, whether in The Iliad or in other depictions of war through the times, it is the young that are sent to the battlefield, either to gain glory or to die, thus, as Herbert Hoover once said: â€Å"Old men declare war. But it is the youth that must fight and die.† The Iliad is no different, as it clearly shows us that war is waged by those that can physically fight it, that show the bravery and masculine love for the affair and that have something to gain (or lose) from it. The Iliad thus, becomes perhaps, one of the greatest depictions of how war is fought and why it is fought, and the pathos it brings to all it touches. If we still read it 2,500 years or so, after it was written, it must conjure powerful feelings with which we still identify.

Porter’s generic strategies Essay

Introduction Porter’s generic strategies of cost leadership, differentiation and focus can be (and often are) adopted by competitors in any given industry and can be provably successful in 21st century business. According to Porter: Effectively implementing any of these generic strategies usually requires total commitment and supporting organizational arrangements that are diluted if there is more than one primary target. . . . [These] generic strategies are approaches to outperforming competitors in the industry. Porter (1980: 35). Furthermore, Porter argues that â€Å"the firm failing to develop its strategy in at least one of the directions–a firm struck in the middle–is in an extremely poor position† and is doomed to essentially low profitability. Porter (1980: 41). In cost leadership situation an organization sets out to be the low-cost producer in its industry. It caters for many industry segments. If an organization can achieve and sustain overall cost leadership then it will achieve superior performance. Cost leadership can be obtained by focusing on key accounts, reaping economies of scale, controlling costs† (Sultan Kermally; 2003, 66-67). Main Body In order to achieve an proper competitive positioning and above average performance, Porter has proposed the following strategies which are termed as generic strategies: Cost leadership A differentiation strategy Focus strategy Cost leadership (attaining the lowest cost position) is clearly not within every firm’s ability to strive toward and attain. In fact, not more than one or two firms in any industry can give value arising predominately from cost-effective operations. By far the majority of firms succeed through the implementation of one of the other two strategies. Even in the case of supposed commodities, companies strive to raise other dimensions of value given to consumers rather than seeking just to compete on a cost basis. Mobil and Exxon are amongst the petroleum firms that attempt to position their gasoline as being superior in quality (anti-clog, non-freeze, etc.), additionally to which their service stations stock an increasing array of convenience items. Mercedes Benz focuses on the prestige and image-conscious end of the automobile market, while Toyota’s manufacturing efficiency gives it a cost and quality facilitator which is reinforced by its marketing wizardry. Combinations of these strategies are also probable, as when instant oil change (focus) specialists look to establish a low-cost position due to the high volume of business generated by a sensible response to customer’s minor automobile service needs. The cost leadership strategy frequently requires a `lean’ culture and is usually perceived as `unattractive’ with the constant focus on cost management and efficiency. A leaning to be production or operations led therefore emerges. This produces a concentration on standardization of products, components as well as processes with the minimization of variations/derivatives. A fine balance needs to be attained between maintaining a contracted range of products/services and meeting the varying needs of diverse customer groups. It is these tensions between either giving a differentiated approach to match customer require and gain competitive advantage, or pursuing cost leadership to gain profit margin and value advantage, that frequently leads in practice to a mixed approach. This means that the advantages of neither competitive position are attained. This being `stuck in the middle’ yields no competitive advantage and corrodes the position of the business unit. Differentiation would involve an organization in providing something unique to its target customers. The uniqueness can be related to products, the way it delivers its goods and services, the way it markets its products or anything that shapes a customer’s perception in relation to differentiation. This could be the way products and services are branded or designed and the customers perceive such offerings as unique† (Sultan Kermally; 2003, 66-67). The differentiation strategy is often the most `attractive’ in that it gives the opportunity for a more resourceful approach to the market. For this reason the organization tends to be marketing led. It is fundamental in these business units that the cost/benefit analysis of any new type of differentiation is thoroughly evaluated. In addition, sensitivity analysis should be used to look at the capability of the associated cost base at different levels of sales performance and in diverse market conditions. The primary challenge with differentiation is one of competitor replication, where the benefit is temporary and, once replicated, becomes an increase in the industry/market cost base for all competitors. This growing migration of the cost base can over time destroy an attractive market segment. According to Grant (1991): â€Å"Differentiation is different from segmentation. Differentiation is concerned with how the firm competes — in what ways the firm can proffer uniqueness to its customers. Such exclusivity might relate to consistency (McDonalds), dependability (Federal Express), status (American Express), quality (Marks & Spencer), and innovation (Sony). Segmentation, in terms of market segment choices is concerned with where the firm competes in terms of consumer groups, localities and product types†. Whereas segmentation is a feature of market structure, differentiation is a strategic choice by a firm. A segmented market is one that can be partitioned according to the characteristics of customers and their demand. Differentiation is concerned with a firm’s positioning within a market or a segment in relation to the product, service and image characteristics that influence customer choice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Sultan Kermally; 2003, 66-67). Michael Porter also has addressed the issues of competitive advantage in relation to the nations. In his book ‘The Competitive Advantage of Nations’ (1990), Porter’s view has an impact in relation to global competition and consequently global marketing. He puts forward a view that national conditions influence a firm’s competitive advantage in globally competing industries. Then comes focus strategy that â€Å"involves an organization being selective in terms of the segments it wants to serve and focusing on these segments to the exclusion of other segments. The focus strategy can either be cost focus or differentiation focus. If an organization does not choose generic strategies it wants to focus on then as Porter puts it, it will be ‘stuck in the middle’. The extent to which a generic strategy can be sustainable will depend on competitors’ behavior and action. The organization constantly has to be a step ahead of its competitors† (Sultan Kermally; 2003, 66-67). Porter’s generic strategies are based on the competitive methods and possibility of the organization, both of which compromise its strategy. His recommendations have perceptive appeal. Unfortunately, Porter does not cite any contributing literature in the development of his typology. It is also unfortunate that Porter’s deductively derived typology was not convoyed by an attempt to validate its contents empirically. However, separate research efforts have been directed at subjecting Porter’s conceptualized typology to empirical verification. One of the first empirical tests of Porter’s hypothesis was conducted by Dess and Davis, who examined 22 firms in the paint and related products industry (Dess and Davis, 1984). A total of 78 executives from these firms completed questionnaires by representing the importance of 21 competitive variables (Woo and Cool, 1983). The resulting correlation matrix of this distinctiveness was subjected to factor analysis to isolate the competitive dimensions linked with Porter’s three generic strategies. The principal factor solutions hold three elements that were matched against Porter’s generic strategies. A panel of seven academicians was then surveyed to establish the importance of each competitive means for each of the generic strategies. Overall, general agreement was attained between the panel’s definition of cost leadership and differentiation and that resultant via the factor analysis. However, disagreement existed over the panel’s idea of focus strategy and that which was labeled through the beginning. So as to differentiate firms according to discrete patterns of strategic behavior, Dess and Davis entered the factor scores of each firm into a group algorithm. Performance data (return on assets and annual sales growth) were provided for 15 of these firms. The authors observed four separate clusters, of which three were hold as pursuing distinct generic strategies (cost leadership, differentiation, or focus). They labeled the fourth cluster â€Å"stuck in the middle.† Return on assets for both the cost leadership and differentiation strategies were considerably higher than that generated by the â€Å"stuck in the middle† strategy, lending some support to Porter’s argument that generic strategies produce superior performance. However, the focus cluster was also shown to have the lowest profitability, signifying that Dess and Davis’s results were not conclusive. The authors also raised questions concerning interpretation of factor scores, given concerns they had with the constancy of factor loading in the sample set. The study is also limited in that it implicated only one industry. In a separate study, White examined 69 business units from 12 different businesses from the Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (PIMS) data base in order to determine the â€Å"proper† organizational requirements approved for Porter’s three generic strategies (White, 1986). A differentiation strategy was operationalized by high relative cost and price, whereas a cost leadership strategy was distinct by low relative price and cost. The organizational â€Å"context† of the business unit was operationalized along three dimensions: autonomy, frequency of reports/reviews, and functional coordination. Performance was determined according to return on investment (ROI), real sales growth, relative market share, and cash flow from investment. By statistically comparing different organizational characteristics, White was capable to demonstrate that businesses within a common strategy class had similar organizational contexts within the overall corporation. For businesses that followed a cost leadership strategy, higher ROIs were linked with low autonomy and more frequent reviews and measures of performance. For businesses following differentiation strategies, higher ROIs were linked with an opposite set of interorganizational characteristics. These results were reliable with Porter’s contention (Porter, 1980). However, when White employed other measures of performance (for instance, real sales growth), the previously mentioned relationships did not always hold. In addition, the combination strategy of both low cost and differentiation produced the highest overall ROI results and higher real growth consequences than a simple pure cost strategy. This suggests that, differing to Porter’s hypothesis, some successful businesses follow a combination of two or more â€Å"generic† strategies concurrently. Another study based on testing Porter’s hypothesis was performed by Woo and Cool. The primary aim of this study was to contrast the performance of Porter’s differentiation and cost leadership strategies with non-generic strategies. The study concentrated on domestic manufacturing businesses over the period from 1976 to 1979 and used the PIMS data base. Woo and Cool chose relative price and cost as representative of the major dimensions that reflect Porter’s differentiation as well as cost leadership strategies. Performance was represented by four factors: return on investment, real sales growth, relative market share, and cash flow to investment. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure was performed that designated mixed results for the generic strategies. According to Woo and Cool, â€Å"In all cases, non-generic strategies as a group seem to achieve as well as the generic strategies.† (Woo and Cool, 1983, 17). These results seem to corroborate those findings of White. In addition, the use of discriminant analysis recognized differences in the functional components of Porter’s two generic strategies and revealed that (1) differentiation strategy was recognized with higher product quality and product R&D and (2) cost leadership was linked with lower discretionary spending and a heavy emphasis on forward integration. In all, Woo and Cool’s conclusions challenged two aspects of Porter’s hypothesis, namely, that generic strategies produce superior performance and that the useful components of particular generic strategies are static and deductively particular The generic strategies make the postulation that the company intends to persist in a concentration mode, that is, limit its horizons to a single product/service or attain a predominant portion of its sales in one industry. Few large or medium size firms confine their product horizons. Characteristically it is small businesses that start with such a focus. With success and growth usually comes a desire to reduce dependence on any one product/market. Diversified firms have more established sales and earnings. Risk reduction unquestionably helps improve shareholder value. Most firms have historically been uncomfortable about â€Å"sticking to their knitting† lest they knit a sweater that’s no longer in style or that someone else can make at half the price (perhaps with a machine they’ve just invented). The unwillingness to place all one’s eggs in one basket is quite comprehensible since it could result in binding the company’s future to just one product, a product that might be rendered obsolete or alternated by alternate products. Also, competitors could prove to be more competent at value formation by identifying the desired components of value more accurately or delivering them more efficiently. Continuous value enhancement in a single product area is positively laudable, but prudence dictates that other stakeholders’ needs (shareholders, employees, creditors, and suppliers, for instance) also be taken into thought. Diversification is an important strategy in assuring that the needs of a diversity of stakeholders are given careful enough attention to merit their strong support. Moreover, expanding the product as well as market scope of the firm widens its range of customers, providing even more opportunities for delivering value in completely novel ways. Diversification has, of late, come under fire for being the reason of many firms’ declining ability to compete with domestic and foreign rivals. It is, however, conglomerate diversification that distracts a firm from its work of value. When a firm has numerous product and service offerings, few of which have any association to each other, the objective becomes to exploit shareholder value (stock price and/or dividend). Commitment to a product line or to its customers is noticeably absent at the corporate level. Conglomerates not simply keep their eggs in different baskets, they often forget where their baskets are! On the other hand, concentrically diversified firms–General Electric, Matsushita, Procter and Gamble, IBM, and Honda, to name a few–seek new product or market opportunities with a view to ongoing their prior success in value creation. IBM, for instance, has excelled at providing engineering, installation, maintenance and other types of services to customers. This source of value has been deliberately developed and maximized regardless of whether the product is a mainframe computer, a microcomputer or peripheral equipment. Procter and Gamble, whether in consumer non-durables or in its more recent food/pharmaceutical ventures has, certainly, always been known for its clear conceptualization and faultless construction of value? However, its capability to unerringly communicate the value inhabiting in its products–through timely and well-planned distribution, superb promotion, and rapid assimilation of customer comments-is what enables P & G to exploit value in its erstwhile as well as new product areas. Thus, Porter three generic strategies are alternative, workable approaches to dealing with the competitive forces.†Ã‚   However, the uniqueness of Porter’s cost, differentiation, and focus strategies has been empirically supported by Dess and Davis, White, and Woo and Cool. These same researchers have also suggested that various combinations of these strategy taxa (cost, differentiation, focus) often result in superior performance. Here, the central matter is focused on the proper level of abstraction in conceptualizing generic strategies. As such, cost, differentiation, and focus (or their derivatives) have been equally viewed as representative of lower levels of concept and as such are more appropriately measured as strategy â€Å"types† or â€Å"strategic factors† that in combination make up the taxa or composite strategies. Conclusion Porter’s generic strategies can be linked directly to the competitive positioning strategy. Product specialization, high-quality offerings, and product innovation are all derivatives of Porter’s differentiation strategy; the combination strategy type recognized in this study relates to Porter’s cost and differentiation strategies. Porter also suggests four strategic alternatives in global industries: broad line global competition, global focus, national focus, and protected niche. These broad patterns resemble aspects of the internationalization dimension. For instance, the domestic strategy type identified in this study is closely linked to Porter’s national focus strategy. Porter also does not mention either exporting or mixed international strategy types. Porter has yet to differentiate fully his conceptualization of global strategy in terms of internationalization and competitive positioning. Indeed, his own perspectives of global strategy seem to have matured with time, perhaps as a consequence of mounting criticism leveled against his cost/differentiation generic strategies. To Porter, the essence of a global strategy can be captured through strategic focus. Yet by defining global industries throughout international parameters, it becomes imperative to determine both whether and how member businesses are in fact competing internationally. Later Porter expands his earlier conceptualization of global strategy by defining it as â€Å"one in which a firm seeks to gain competitive advantage from its international presence through either concentrating configuration, coordination among dispersed activities, or both.† (Porter 1986a: 20) With this definition, global strategy is no longer portrayed as just a function of the one-dimensional geographic experience captured by strategic focus. Rather, it is reflected in the essence of internationalization captured in this study. Porter has always faced a complex challenge subordinating his own four–largely internationalization–strategy types to his leading generic strategies. Indeed, by identifying global strategies through predominantly internationalization, Porter is seen implicitly supporting an agreeing strategic emphasis on both competitive positioning and internationalization. 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